Do ADHD Stimulant Drugs Stunt Growth?

Here are seven questions or factors we need to address to assess the validity of studies on ADHD stimulant medications and their effects on growth:

1. Is there a history of prior stimulant medication use? Surprisingly, a number of studies on the inhibitory effects of ADHD stimulant medications either neglect or downplay the fact that children in their studies had a previous history of stimulant medication usage for their conditions. This can seriously confound effects, for if a child was taking a stimulant medication previously, he or she may still be on track for a lower baseline growth rate. Furthermore, if a child was taken off stimulant medications recently, there remains the possibility that his or her system is beginning to play "catch-up" by displaying a greater-than-normal increase in growth following a medication "holiday". In either case, baseline readings are skewed, and these effects muddy the accuracy of current stimulant medication studies on growth effects. Poulton and Nanan make this observation in their article on prior treatments with stimulant medication and growth in children with ADHD. They go on to say that growth is an accurate indicator of prior treatment with stimulant medication.
   
   
2. Beware of the pretreatment bias with regards to effectiveness of stimulant medications: Poulton and Nanan also warned about the natural bias of individuals with a previous treatment history of stimulants in that they have already proven to have a greater tolerance to potential side effects (otherwise they would have likely discontinued earlier stimulant treatments) and an overall higher levels of compliance and positive response to stimulant medications. This too, can give a potential "false positive" with regards to evaluating the effectiveness of current stimulant medication treatments for ADHD.
   
   
3. Do untreated children and adolescents with ADHD have different growth patterns than non-affected children? This is also a much-neglected consideration. Spencer and coworkers performed a study in which they saw a slower growth rate in the earlier years for children with ADHD, which was followed by a significantly later "catch" up period. In other words, compared to non-ADHD children, individuals with ADHD may be more predisposed to being "late bloomers", even when they are unmedicated. This potential difference in growth patterns between ADHD'ers and non-ADHD'ers, while still highly debatable, should at least raise the question as to whether delays in growth patterns for medicated individuals with ADHD can actually be attributed to the medications or to the nature of the disorder itself (or a combination of both).
   
   
4. Do "drug holidays" work? This is actually comprised of several questions and considerations. It is not uncommon for parents or prescribing physicians to allow for "drug holidays" for unmedicated ADHD children. These holidays can vary from a few days to longer periods such as an entire summer vacation. If the period of these drug holidays is long enough, such as in a summer-long study by Gittleman-Klein and coworkers on methylphenidate and growth, significant changes may be seen. This study saw a relative increase in weight but not in height following a summer off of medication of the stimulant methylphenidate (Ritalin). Of potential interest was the observation that following a second holiday from medication the following summer, a relative increase in height but not in weight was observed. It is entirely possible that the duration and frequency of drug holidays may effect the two parameters (height and weight) in slightly different fashions. Another article by Poulton suggests the possibility that height gains may take longer to remedy because gains in weight may drive subsequent growth in height.
   
   
5. Does the type of stimulant medication make a difference? In a preliminary sense, it appears that the answer would be "yes". For example, it appears that the stimulant drug dexamphetamine (d-amphetamine, also called by common name Dexedrine) has a greater inhibitory effect on growth during the first year of treatment than does methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, Daytrana).
   
   
6. What is the typical extent of growth impairments due to stimulant medications? We need to be careful on this one, especially with regards to some of the earlier factors and considerations mentioned above. Nevertheless, a review of the literature seems to indicate a relative deficit in growth of around 1 cm per year for up to about 3 years which can be attributed to stimulant medication treatment. Furthermore, it appears that weight may be even more affected than height due to stimulant medication treatment, although it also appears that weight differences are easier to remediate than height differences and therefore pose less of a concern.
   
   
7. Are the growth changes due to stimulant medication temporary or permanent? Although hotly debatable, it appears that growth impairments due to prescribed stimulant medication usage is more of a short-term effect. A follow-up study of medicated ADHD children into adulthood indicated that even at moderately-high doses of the stimulant medication methylphenidate (45 mg/day average), medicated children with ADHD eventually reached normal final heights when compared to controls. It is worth mentioning, however, that these children eventually discontinued their medications. It is unclear as to what the effects may have been had they continued on with the methylphenidate usage into adulthood (especially since there has been a sharp trend towards continuing stimulant medication treatment into adulthood for adult ADHD).

Evaluation of Vyvanse for ADHD Treatment

A new drug called Vyvanse (Lisdexamfetamine) has entered the world of ADHD stimulant medications relatively recently. Vyvanse was originally marketed as an ADHD treatment for children, but has recently been approved by the FDA for adult and adolescent use this past April. A cousin of the popular ADHD medications Dexedrine and Adderall, Vyvanse includes some key modifications from these other meds. Some reports (unverified) suggest that Shire Pharmaceuticals, the makers of Vyvanse, are pushing this new drug aggressively over Adderall XR. While Adderall is a chemical mixture of amphetamine salts including enantiomers, Vyvanse only contains the one enantiomer thought to be more "active".

A quick side note on enantiomers: Entantiomers are essentially "mirror images" of the same chemical compound, like a person's left and right hand. The body, like most objects in nature, react differently to and often heavily prefer one "mirror image" over the other. Certain ADHD medications such as Focalin, have already employed this technique. Focalin is an isolation of only one of the two mirror images that make up Ritalin, another popular ADHD medication. In addition, the ADHD medication Dexedrine also employs this mirror-image selectivity regarding its composition.

The second major difference between Vyvanse and other amphetamines such as Adderall, is that Vyvanse is listed as a "pro-drug". A pro-drug is essentially an inactive form of a drug, which, when broken down or metabolized by the body, releases the active drug form. Vyvanse contains an amphetamine which is chemically linked to an amino acid (a building block component of proteins) called lysine. In the body, this chemical linkage is severed by special enzymes which separate Vyvanse into the amphetamine drug and leftover lysine fragment (which is easily disposed of, since lysine is a naturally occurring amino acid in its own right).

***Blogger's note: I will be citing a number of studies previously conducted on the drug lisdexamfetamine. Keep in mind that this is a relatively new drug, so it does not have the history of a drug such as methylphenidate. Nevertheless, I have tried to keep a good balance of sample studies on the drug to report on. The list of studies mentioned and referred to here, are by no means exclusive! While not all of the studies used the Vyvanse brand of the drug, I will be using the terms "Vyvanse" and lisdexamfetamine interchangeably throughout the post.

***Additionally, please do not take this information as official medical advice. I am simply trying to highlight some of the pluses and minuses of the drug and arm you with information so you can better consult with your physician on the merits of this drug.

This chemically-modified form carries several apparent advantages for Vyvanse:

• Since the lysine link must be cleaved to release the active form of the amphetamine drug, Vyvanse naturally lasts longer in the system than do straight amphetamines. While most other stimulant medications rely on the capsules encasing the drugs to slowly dissolve and thereby slow down the release of the drug, Vyvanse already has what is essentially a controlled release built in to the drug itself. As a result, a single dose taken early in the day can last up until the evening hours, which allows individuals to avoid the hassle or stigma of needing to take the medication during the work or school day.

• Most of amphetamines problems stem from their addiction potentials. Generally, the faster the amphetamine gets into the blood stream and gets into (as well as out of), the brain, the greater the "high", and the more addiction-forming the drug. Again, by its built-in slow release mechanism, Vyvanse enters the blood (as well as the nervous system) at a slower, more controlled pace, thereby reducing its addiction potential. Even when snorted or injected, lisdexamfetamine exhibits notably reduced addiction potentials, when compared to other amphetamine-based stimulants. For example, when injected via IV, subjects who took Vyvanse needed 1-3 hours to feel the drug effects while isolated d-amphetamine (analogous to Dexedrine) felt the effects in only 15 minutes.

• Due largely in part to the fact that Vyvanse's drug effect needs to be "activated" biochemically, it is poses less risk for tampering and related abuses (i.e., crushing and snorting) as well.

Additionally, Vyvanse also carries some other distinctive advantages:

• While many drugs effectiveness are often dependent on the level of acidity in the stomach and intestinal tract, Vyvanse appears to be only mildly affected. It dissolves quickly in the gastro-intestinal tract, and its solubility is minimally affected by digestive pH.

• The presence of food only results in a slight delay in Vyvanse's absorption. When taken alongside a fatty meal (fatty foods generally impede the absorption process, as they themselves are slow to clear the gastro-intestinal tract) the delay in amphetamine release from Vyvanse was only about an hour. This was in contrast to around a 2.5 hour delay when Adderall was taken with fatty foods. As a result, Vyvanse appears to be less affected by the presence of food than other well-known amphetamines, suggesting an increased versatility as an ADHD stimulant medication treatment.


• This next statement is the blogger's opinion and is not supported by direct evidence. Nevertheless I believe this is a topic worthy of investigation: In a previous blog post, we discussed celiac disease and how it can ravage the digestive tract and result in ADHD-like symptoms. While these symptoms are likely the result of a different path than ADHD caused by genetic or environmental factors, it may be worth noting that Vyvanse may alleviate some of these inattentive symptoms better than other ADHD medications, due to the fact that it may absorb better in a digestive system damaged by celiac disease or the pH changes which often accompany it (poorly digested carbohydrates can alter the pH in the digestive system immensely). While this will not treat the underlying cause of celiac disease, it may mask the some of the ADHD-like symptoms better than other medications. This assertion is simply a personal hypothesis and is yet to be studied or verified.

• In addition to its resiliency regarding foods and digestive pH, it appears that Vyvanse may be less susceptible to negative drug-drug interactions than many other agents. Many medications target a key metabolic system referred to as Cytochrome P450. While to complex to discuss in detail in the limited scope of this post, the P450 system of proteins plays an integral role in drug metabolism, the body's antioxidant levels, and regulation of toxicities, it appears that the effects of the drug lisdexamfetamine on the P450 system are minimal. Since many drugs do operate via this system, Lisdexamfetamine should therefore pose less of a threat regarding negative drug-drug interactions.

• The drug apparently has a good track record as far as behavioral improvements and attention span are concerned. A study was done using a rating scale called SKAMP (which stands for the initials of its creators: Swanson, Kotkin, Agler, M-Flynn and Pelham), which is used to determine classroom behavior. According to the study using this particular rating scale, measurable improvements were seen in both attention span and classroom conduct for periods of up to 12 hours after taking their last dose of lisdexamfetamine. Prolonged behavioral changes are typically not seen to this degree, and the fact that the subjects were diagnosed and medicated previously suggest the potential effectiveness of Lisdexamfetamine even for "stubborn" ADHD cases.

• The same study also employed a mathematics-based test called PERMP (short for Permanent Product Measure of Performance). Notable improvements were seen in both both speed and accuracy on this test following a 5-week amphetamine treatment program. Lisdexamfetamine's positive effects on this cognitive task peaked around 4.5 hours after the last dose was administered and held relatively steady for the next 7-8 hours. The results of this study suggest that Lisdexamfetamine can improve the inattentive and behavioral symptoms of ADHD as well as enhance cognitive performance abilities for a prolonged period of time. This suggests great potential for use as a "school drug".

• A study on adult stimulant drug abusers by Jasinski and Krishnan presented at the 2006 US Psychiatric and Mental Health Congress found that the study's subjects found Lisdexamfetamine to be much less "likable" than other amphetamines, further suggesting a reduced addiction potential for an already-at-risk group.

• When taken around breakfast time (7:30-8:00 a.m.), Vyvanse showed remarkable "staying power" throughout the day, based on results from a behavioral rating scale taken in the mid-morning, afternoon and evening time (the last being around 6:00 p.m.). This is good news for teachers and parents, and suggests a more gradual tapering-off of effects, and a lesser "rebound effect", in which negative symptoms rapidly reappear, often within the hours of 4 and 6 p.m.

• Amphetamine levels delivered via the lisdexamfetamine system are thought to stabilize within about 5 days. This is good news, especially since many ADHD medications can take up to 3 weeks to normalize their effects.

• Lisdexamfetamine is apparently processed and broken down in an efficient manner, and is typically cleared from the body without system buildup.

• Lisdexamfetamine has also shown more consistency than many other drugs as far as less variation from patient to patient. While this is neither good or bad by itself, it does suggest a greater inherent stability in that it appears to be less susceptible to the effects of other bodily functions which are variable from person-to-person. As a result, I see this greater predictability will make it a preferable choice for many prescribing physicians. Of course, the flip side is that ADHD is an extremely complex and multi-faceted disorder, and clinicians may fall into the trap of seeing a "one-size-fits-all" solution and begin to treat Lisdexafetamine as a fall-back, default prescription.
  

This blog, of course, is not designed to sound like some sort of promotional "infomercial" touting all of the benefits of Vyvanse while leaving out potential risk factors. To keep things balanced, I have included some of the negative attributes of this particular stimulant medication as well:

• While the study by Jasinski and Krishnan on the reduced "likability" of Vyvanse was encouraging, it is not recommended for individuals with a history of drug abuse, as previous non-prescription drugs can interfere with its effectiveness.

• Additionally, Vyvanse reduces the presence of a key enzyme in the body which is targeted by anti-depressants called monoamine oxidase. A number of anti-depressants called monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI's) also target this enzyme and reduce its presence. Due to the potentially harmful combination of amphetamines and MAOI's, these MAOI drugs should not be taken alongside Vyvanse. Please note that certain substances, such as cigarettes, and even turmeric or curry (in large doses) can also have potentially negative effects with Vyvanse.

• Slight elevations in heart rate and blood pressure (mainly the diastolic pressure, which is the smaller of the two numbers and represents the blood pressure at the "resting" phase of the heart) and slight changes in heart rhythms were seen with Vyvanse, especially in the upper dose (70 mg) levels. However, this is a relatively common occurrence within the family of stimulant medications. For further information, please see the earlier post Are ADHD Stimulant Drugs Bad for your Heart?

• Like most stimulant medications used to treat ADHD, appetite suppression was also a common side effect (this is due, in part, to increased levels of free dopamine, an important signaling agent in the nervous system, which, also plays a role in the feeling of "fullness" in an individual. By artificially boosting free levels of this neuro-chemical, a reduction of hunger symptoms are often seen), even at the lower 30 mg doses. However, actual weight loss did not become a huge symptom until the upper levels (around 70 mg doses) were approached.

• Insomnia can also be a problem with Vyvanse, even at lower doses. As a result, it is advised to give this medication as early in the day as possible.

• The "classic" side effects (that almost all medications now somehow seem to evoke!) such as headache, nausea, vomiting, etc. all remained relatively low until the 70 mg level was approached.

• Keep in mind that this drug still functions as a stimulant, and is therefore inherently better-suited for the more inattentive or impulsive forms of ADHD. Given the negative interactions with the MAOI class of antidepressants and the fact that stimulant drugs in general can worsen depressive symptoms, I recommend that extreme caution be used when prescribing this medication for individuals with comorbid ("comorbid" means "occurring alongside of") depressive symptoms alongside their attention deficit disorder.

Medication Doses Available:

30 mg, 50 mg and 70 mg were the original strengths available, but recently 20 mg, 40 mg and 60 mg doses have been added. The amount of amphetamine delivered in Vyvanse compared to Dexedrine approximately a 5:2 ratio. For example, 50 mg of Vyvanse corresponds roughly to 20 mg Dexedrine, 25 mg Vyvanse to 10 mg Dexedrine, etc. 30 mg is often a starting point for children, but doses can be carefully ramped up under the guidance of a physician. In general, it appears that many of the negative side effects can be kept at bay by staying under the 70 mg amount.

A quick side note: For another good source of information on medication dosages, I recommend the blog of Dr. Charles Parker. His blog can be found here. Additionally, he talks about a paradox called the therapeutic window. This is interesting to note, because sometimes ADHD medications which are prescribed at too high of a dosage actually result in ADHD symptoms to re-emerge and give the false impression of underdosage. You can check out this blog article here.

With regards to upper limits and safety measures, based on the studies mentioned above, negative side effects tend to increase around the 70 mg mark. Nevertheless, studies have been done at levels up to 130-150 mg. It is interesting to note that once this high range was reached, the amphetamine concentration in the blood began to taper off. This is good news with regards to the potential for overdose and buildup of toxic levels (note the relatively efficient rate of clearance of Vyvanse mentioned earlier in this post).

As a final word of caution: Remember that Vyvanse is essentially a new delivery method of amphetamines. I have highlighted some of the positives such as lower addiction potential and prolonged modes of action. However, keep in mind that there is often a strong "publication" bias, in that studies which find a drug to be ineffective or even counter-effective are often not reported or published. I therefore urge you to take some of these "glowing" reports on the drug with a grain of salt. Nevertheless, I remain at least cautiously optimistic with regards to the potential merits of lisdexamfetamine for treating ADHD and related disorders. We will be investigating other ADHD medication options shortly in future blog posts.

How Addictive is Ritalin?

ADHD Medications

The controversy and discussion surrounding the safety of medications for ADD and ADHD is nothing new. Among the most common criticisms of these drugs are concerns about their abuse potential and their potential risks of being habit-forming drugs. Methylphenidate (the generic name for Ritalin and Concerta), has often been mentioned in the same sentence as "cocaine", especially among the "anti-medication" and "alternative treatment" sites for ADHD treatment options. While some of these comparisons are definitely warranted, the chemical structures and modes of action of ADHD stimulants such as amphetamines and the amphetamine-like methylphenidate and the illegal street drug cocaine do bear some striking resemblances. However, it is important that we do not get lost in the hype surrounding these relationships, and instead immerse ourselves in only the facts.

In the field of organic chemistry, even minor alterations to a drug's molecular makeup can result in significant functional differences. With this in mind, however, investigation into the abuse potential of stimulant ADHD medications such as Ritalin, Concerta, Daytrana, Adderall, Dexedrine, and Focalin should be carried out in a thorough, unbiased manner. A review article from the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry on the abuse potential of the ADHD drug methylphenidate investigated key properties of the drug that play a major role in abuse potential (such as drug absorption, products produced when the drug is metabolized, and how fast the drug clears from the body). Some key findings of the article on this popular stimulant medication are summarized below:

1. When injected, methylphenidate, cocaine, and d-amphetamine all produced similar reinforcing effects in human subjects (keep in mind that injections produce drug effects that occur much faster than those taken orally in almost all cases)
2. Sleep deprivation boosted the reinforcing effects of methylphenidate.
3. Methylphenidate displayed similar abuse potential to d-amphetamine for a number of studies of the general population (read "non-ADHD" population).
4. PET scans of the brain following methylphenidate and cocaine (when both were injected) showed similar absorption rates and binding levels to their target (called the Dopamine Transporter Protein or DAT. For more more info on the DAT and ADHD, please click here). However, methylphenidate was cleared much more slowly than cocaine, which correlates to a significantly lower addiction potential for the popular ADHD drug. A quick note about this: The faster a drug is absorbed in the brain, the greater the "high" is, typically. Since injections and snorting both get the drug into the system faster than when taken orally, these methods typically lead to much greater highs and addiction potentials. Additionally, the faster this drug is then cleared, the more it is "missed" by the brain, which also results in a greater addiction potential. So for a fast-acting and fast-clearing drug, the addiction potential is typically very high. For comparison sake, methylphenidate takes about 10 minutes to enter the brain when injected (for cocaine, it is about 5 minutes), and then takes about 90 minutes to clear halfway (for cocaine it is around 20 minutes). Thus, due to its slower uptake and even slower clearance rate, methylphenidate runs a much lower risk of being habit-forming than cocaine.
5. Oral administration of methylphenidate is much slower than this, often taking at least 1-2 hours to peak in concentration in the brain. Extended and slow-release versions of the drug (Concerta, Ritalin-SR) reduce the abuse potential even further.
6. Individuals with ADHD are thought to have a higher amount of binding sites (DAT, see point #4) for these stimulant medications than do those without ADHD. According to the author, this makes individuals with ADHD less susceptible than the general population to habit-forming addictions surrounding the use of the stimulant methylphenidate. A more detailed explanation for this is given below:

Further explanation for Item #6 above: Although neuroscientists still disagree over the mechanism of action of both medicated and illegal stimulants, it is believed that when this DAT protein is "plugged up" or "blocked" by these stimulants, it cannot shuttle free amounts of the brain chemical dopamine into the surrounding cells. As a result, the levels of free dopamine between neuronal cells builds up. Since dopamine plays a key role in the "reward" process, it can also play a major role in both "highs" and "addictions" (both of which seek out these "rewards").

If individuals with ADHD have more of these transporter proteins to begin with, they are less likely to oversaturate all of these transporters. As a result, they are less susceptible to this dopamine buildup and the highs and addiction potentials that go along with it. In other words, individuals with ADHD can often accommodate higher levels of stimulant medications such as methylphenidate, making them less susceptible to addiction-level effects.

Based on this article and a number of other sources I have either read or followed, here is my overall take on the topic of addictions to ADHD stimulant medications:

I earnestly believe that when properly diagnosed, properly monitored by a competent physician or related professional, and by proper compliance by the medicated individual, ADHD medications are relatively safe, and the risk of developing an addiction a medication such as methylphenidate is relatively low.

Of course, as we've seen above, individuals who are not diagnosed with ADHD and take methylphenidate for recreational purposes, the potential habit-forming effects of the drug can at least approach the levels of cocaine or amphetamines. Keep in mind that the right medication at the wrong dosage can easily be just as (or even more) damaging than having the wrong medication.

Yes, stimulant drugs prescribed for ADHD are often closely related to cocaine in both chemical structure and mode of function, but the small differences between the two are sufficient enough to form a "safety barrier". Given the fact that so many undiagnosed individuals with ADHD or other related disorders often tend to "self-medicate", the dangers of "un-treatment" are just as real and just as hazardous. Keep in mind that "self-medication" is, by nature, a much more erratic form of treatment and typically abounds in negative side effects.

This is not to say that non-medication treatments should never be explored or considered as viable options for treating ADHD. Many of the so-called "alternative treatments for ADHD" are surprisingly well-grounded and increasingly-researched. However, I remain highly skeptical to those who claim that all cases of ADHD can be handled exclusively and completely by natural means. Natural remedies can be very effective for numerous cases involving ADHD, but their scope and range of applications are somewhat limited.

Please check back later for future posts related to many of these important topics on ADHD!

Are ADHD Stimulant Drugs Bad for your Heart?

Potential Cardiovascular Risks of ADHD Medications

Given the rapid rise in prescription stimulant medications for ADHD, potential concerns surrounding the side effects of these medications has been a hot topic of recent interest. News alerts like to mention the potential dangers of these drugs, and "natural health" websites are often even quicker to point out these flaws (often to the point of exaggeration).

While it is a medical fact that stimulant medications do carry certain health risks, I believe that the big question we should be asking ourselves surrounding this issue is not whether amphetamine or amphetamine-like medications are dangerous for us, but rather how can we minimize these negative effects of these substances and keep their usage as safe as possible? After all, untreated ADHD can cause enough problems in and of itself (I will describe some of these lesser known consequences in a later post).

There was a relatively recent article (2006) in the New England Journal of Medicine titled ADHD Drugs and Cardiovascular Risk sought to investigate the overall safety of these stimulant medications for treating ADHD. This article was in the Perspective section of the journal, meaning that this was an opinionated piece. We should always be careful about drawing conclusions based on opinionated sources, but I believe that the author, Steven E. Nissen of the Cardiovascular Medicine division of the Cleveland Clinic and member of the FDA Advisory Committee on ADHD drugs, makes some very important points that are at least worth mentioning.

Some of the key points of the article are summarized as follows:

• The administration of mixed amphetamines (Adderall) and the amphetamine-like compound methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta) both raised systolic blood pressure (the higher number) by about 5 mm Hg. Based on other reviews, elevated blood pressure, even of this magnitude can pose as a major cardiovascular threat.

• Taking medications of this class (called sympathomimetic agents) results in a long-term increase in heart rate at potentially dangerous levels.

• Several drugs which are chemically similar to ADHD stimulant medications have been either pulled from the market or are subject to strong medical lobbying efforts for removal. Drugs such as ephedra and phenylpropanolamine (PPA) are both chemically similar to ADHD stimulants and have similar overlapping modes of action. Ephedra has been linked to the deaths of several professional and amateur athletes and a warning has been issued surrounding PPA and increased risks of hemorrhaging and stroke.

• The Adverse Event Reporting System (AERS), which is a database used by the FDA to detect potential risks surrounding medications and other treatments, turned up multiple reports of sudden deaths associated with ADHD stimulant drugs, several which involved individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular defects and conditions. Additionally, a significant number of non-fatal heart difficulties such as heart attacks, irregular heart beats and stroke were observed.

• Many of these reports were "without proper documentation", so the FDA could not make any definitive conclusions from this data. Based on this blogger's opinion, the phrase "without proper documentation" could refer to either data which is not complete to the point of being statistically significant to warrant further action, or information that was disregarded due to minor "technicalities" intrinsic to a bureacratic system. It is neither my place nor my intention to villainize the FDA, but it is important to at least consider this information and keep it tucked away in the backs of our heads.

If the information and conclusions of the article appear bleak to you, that is because they are. Nevertheless, it is important to note that this is one person's opinion, which, although echoed by many, is by no means unanimous. Having said that, I believe that the following steps should be taken for anyone considering stimulant medications for ADHD or a related disorder:

1. A thorough screen of both an individual's background and their family history should be done before starting any type of ADHD stimulant medication.
2. Numerical measurements such as blood pressure and heart rates should be taken frequently and passed on to the individual's physician. Keep in mind that even moderate increases in either of these can pose serious cardiovascular risks over time.
3. For individuals with pre-existing heart problems, these medications should only be taken in cases of severe levels of ADHD (where the risks of non-treatment would be potentially more injurious to the individual than the elevated cardiovascular risks associated with these drugs).
4. Even minor changes and symptoms need to be reported immediately and communicated to a supervising physician.

I believe that, in spite of the information presented in this, as well as other articles, ADHD medications can still be administered safely. However, I also believe that a more stringent set of conditions should be met, especially with regards to an individual's overall cardiovascular health. For those who believe that they fall into the "cardiovascular risk" category, I will soon be outlining some useful strategies to help reduce the potential risks and improve the overall safety of these ADHD medications.